Two years of full-scale war in Ukraine: thoughts, feelings, actions

As a team of social researchers and analysts, we have been studying and analyzing the impact of war on Ukrainian society since the first weeks of the full-scale war. In March 2022, we conducted our first study to capture the thoughts, feelings and actions of people in Ukraine during the first two weeks after February 24, 2022. In order to record the dynamics of changes in emotional states, decision making, and adaptation of everyday life to the conditions of war, we conducted another wave of the study every three months during the first year of the full-scale war. So the second wave of the study was conducted in May 2022, focusing on the first three months of the full-scale war; the third wave was conducted in August 2022, focusing on six months of the full-scale war; in November 2022, we conducted the fourth wave, dedicated to nine months of the full-scale war; and in February–March 2023, we conducted the fifth wave, dedicated to the first year of the full-scale war. In February–March 2024, we conducted the sixth wave to capture the impact of further developments during the second year of the full-scale war and the changes caused by them. The results of its analysis are presented in this report.

The research team is grateful to everyone who has filled out the questionnaire and to those who have shared it. We also thank everyone whose support enabled us to prepare this text, particularly the people who have made donations for Cedos’s work, as well as our donors. This report has been prepared as a part of the Documenting Ukraine project of the Institute for Human Sciences (IWM, Vienna).

Methodology

The goal of the study was to capture (in progress, directly while the events were unfolding, rather than in retrospect), describe and generalize the experiences of war in Ukraine as well as trends of changes in these experiences over time. 

The subject of the study are experiences of war in Ukrainian society.

For the purposes of this study, we include everyone who identifies with Ukrainian society in the category of Ukrainian society. We do not exclude people who have no Ukrainian citizenship; people who have not lived in Ukraine for a while but who identify with Ukraine and Ukrainian society. We do not limit the subject of our research to civilians but also include combatants; however, we suppose that the latter have limited representation in the sample. 

The focus of this study is the stage of the Russian-Ukrainian war known as the “full-scale war,” which began on February 24, 2022, as a result of the Russian Federation’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine. Even though the war began back in 2014, the scale of its impact on Ukrainian society changed and grew significantly as a result of the full-scale invasion, which was what motivated us to start working on this study.

The study is exploratory, meaning that its goal is primarily to describe reality rather than look for connections and explain causes. Since the goal of this study is to identify possible trends in experiences rather than assess them quantitatively, we chose a qualitative approach, just like for the previous waves. This allowed us to conduct a study with a similar methodology and to be able to compare the findings

In order to collect the data, we used a self-report questionnaire designed in Google Forms. As the previous waves of the study showed, this option is simple and convenient for respondents because it has no temporal limitations, allows for non-mandatory answers, and allows the respondents to interrupt answering the questionnaire at any moment. Information about the study and the link to the form to be filled out was shared on Cedos social media pages (including via targeted advertising from the Cedos Facebook page), through the Cedos mailing list, on the researchers’ personal pages, and in personal communication.

Since this study of the experiences of the full-scale war by Ukrainian society is the sixth such study, we call it the “sixth wave.” Despite this, the questionnaire only partially repeated the previous ones, because the situation in Ukraine had changed significantly during 2023. For example, considering that there were no massive power outages in the winter of 2023–2024, questions about their impact were not included in the survey, unlike in the fourth and fifth waves of the study. Meanwhile, given that the full-scale war has been ongoing for more than two years, it was decided to investigate how the daily lives of respondents have changed in the context of practices directly related to the war, specifically volunteering and donating to the Armed Forces of Ukraine (AFU). Additionally, we decided to include questions related to rebuilding and recovery, as well as changes in social norms in society. At the same time, some questions related to daily life and household routines, emotional experiences, and employment remained in the same or slightly modified form to maintain continuity.

Overall, the questionnaire included questions corresponding to five dimensions related to different spheres of human life, through which we consider the experiences of living through the war within this study:

• bodily dimension: questions about everyday life and routines;
• psychological dimension: questions about emotional experiences and feelings, as well as about ways to cope with these experiences;
• social dimension: questions about communication with different groups of people;
• economic dimension: questions about changes in work and its nature;
• public dimension: questions related to civic activities, including volunteering and donations, questions about societal unity, changes in social norms in Ukrainian society, questions about thoughts on the course of the war, views on one’s role in the war, reflections on recovery and rebuilding, as well as questions regarding attitudes toward mobilization into the Armed Forces of Ukraine.

In addition, the questionnaire contained final questions to determine the sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents. 

The questionnaire opened with an explanation about the goal of the study and the confidentiality of the collected information, as well as a warning that it contained questions on sensitive topics. In addition, the questionnaire included information about the services and platforms providing free-of-charge mental health assistance and links to them. Most of the questions were open-ended, so the respondents were not limited to pre-set options. This way, we tried to encourage the respondents to describe their own experiences, motivations and feelings and to answer at more length. 

Before the beginning of the survey, we conducted a pretest of the developed toolkit. The pretest was conducted among the acquaintances of the research team members. The main goal of the pretest was to find out whether the question formulations were clear, whether the question formulations and the process of filling out the questionnaire provoked any psychological discomfort, and to check the average time it took to fill out the questionnaire. 

The survey was conducted on February 29–March 26, 2024. 218 respondents participated in the survey during that time, which is fewer than in the previous waves. This report presents an analysis of the survey findings for all the questions which the study focused on, except for the question about attitudes towards mobilization, which will be published separately.

Research limitations

While conducting this study, we faced a number of challenges in terms of research methodology and ethics. The ways we chose to respond to these challenges determined the limitations of the research.

• The research sample is not representative of the population of Ukraine. The distribution of sociodemographic characteristics (such as gender, age, financial situation, size of settlement and region of residence, etc.) among the respondents does not reflect the distribution of these characteristics among the entire population of Ukraine. In view of this, the survey findings cannot be extrapolated to the entire population. In our report on the findings of the survey, we describe experiences which really exist and which we were able to record. At the same time, this description of experiences is not exhaustive. The chosen methodology does not allow us to draw conclusions about how widespread these experiences are. Although we do make certain observations regarding the possible trends in the differences between the answers of people who belong to different social groups, they are not definitive evidence of the existence of certain patterns, only hypotheses which require further research.
• The chosen methods of data collection and questionnaire distribution could have affected the non-representation in the study sample of people who had no internet access in the period when the survey was conducted, as well as those who have no skills of using the Google Forms platform.
• Due to security risks, lack of free time, and potential lack of access to the internet or equipment, people who are currently in the occupied territories, in battle zones and areas of intensive shelling or close to them, as well as combatants could be underrepresented in the study sample. People who belong to these categories are present in the sample, but, given the security risks, the questionnaire does not contain any questions aiming to identify such respondents. In view of this, we cannot estimate their share in the sample or compare their answers to the answers of other respondents.
• Compared to previous waves, in the sixth wave, we were able to gather the experiences of a smaller number of people: only 218 individuals completed the questionnaire compared to 435 in the fifth wave, 352 in the fourth, 320 in the third, 335 in the second, and 555 in the first. We attribute this to fatigue and a reduced desire to share experiences of living during wartime. This also resulted in shorter answers to the questions in the questionnaire compared to previous waves of the study. To obtain more completed questionnaires, we used targeted advertising from the Cedos Facebook page, aimed at those who liked the page and their friends. This target audience for paid distribution was intended to approximate the sample formed in the first wave through organic distribution (without advertising), as well as the second to fifth waves, where paid distribution was also used.
• Based on our experience of the previous waves of the survey, we employed a number of steps to ensure better representation among the respondents of social groups that were underrepresented in the previous waves (men, older people, low-income people). For this purpose, the form included a request for the respondents to ask, if possible, an older friend or relative to participate in the survey. In addition, we used targeted advertising from the Cedos Facebook page with a link to the questionnaire and a call to share one’s experiences which was aimed at the target groups (men and women of different ages, older men and women, men of different ages).
• Even though we shared the form using the same communication channels and sent links to it to the participants of the previous waves of the study who had agreed to participate in the next waves and left their contacts, the samples of the different waves were not the same. The forms were not identical either, although they did include a number of similar or same questions. In view of this, the possibilities for comparing different waves of the study are limited. We compare them wherever it is relevant and appropriate. However, comparisons of this kind are not definite evidence for the existence of certain patterns, but rather hypotheses about possible trends which require further research.
• The self-reported questionnaire with a significant number of open-ended questions presupposed the method of recording one’s own experience and feelings in writing. A limitation or consequence of choosing this method is the fact that recording one’s own experiences in writing inevitably leads to higher narrativization of the story and encourages one to rationalize their experiences, which was taken into account while analyzing the data.
• The engagement of the researchers — that is, the fact that they themselves are, to different extents, experiencing the full-scale war and forced displacement — can be both an advantage and a limitation of the study. On the one hand, it can facilitate more reflection and sensitivity to the obtained data as a result of comparing them to personal experiences. On the other hand, it can produce certain preset analytical frameworks which affect the interpretation of the obtained data. In order to avoid cognitive or experiential distortion, the work with the obtained data was distributed among the researchers both at the stage of analysis and interpretation and at the stage of mutual editing.

This study is not comprehensive. Its findings record the variety of experiences of war and their modification during a certain period of time, but they cannot be extrapolated to the entire population of Ukraine and the entire period of the war, because the diversity of experiences of the war is larger and more multifaceted. They require many further studies, from representative nationwide research to studies focused on specific topics and social groups.

Conclusions

The conducted study allows us to draw certain conclusions regarding the experiences and sentiments within Ukrainian society during the period of February-March 2024.

Participants in the study frequently mentioned that during the second year of the full-scale war, they returned to their usual way of life and adapted to living under wartime conditions. They shared that during the second year of the full-scale war, their daily routines became more similar to what they were before the war, compared to the first year. Additionally, the electricity supply during the second year was more stable than in the first year, which positively affected the predictability of their routines.

Regarding their daily lives, respondents often mentioned employment or job loss, changes in their financial situation (often for the worse), relocation, and changes in relationships with loved ones. The daily lives of study participants were also influenced by their emotional state, which had worsened for some of them. When discussing their daily routines, informants also mentioned supporting the Armed Forces of Ukraine and volunteering, joining the Defense Forces, or having plans to do so.

The work situation for a significant portion of the respondents remained unchanged during the second year of the full-scale war: their positions, workloads, and work formats stayed the same as before. For those whose employment situation improved, positive changes included finding new jobs, normalizing workloads, resuming career development, or transitioning to more interesting and socially important work. On the other hand, some respondents experienced a deterioration in their employment situation: they were forced to leave their jobs and take on less qualified work, moved to temporary employment, or frequently changed jobs. As in previous waves of the study, trends in changes in respondents’ financial situations were mixed, with shifts both for the better and for the worse, largely depending on their employment situation.

As in previous waves of the study, the most common primary concerns of respondents continued to be issues directly related to the war: the loss of lives due to military actions, worries about the military, the situation at the front. Other concerns mentioned were also largely related to the war or caused by it: respondents spoke about fears for their own safety and lives, as well as for the safety of their loved ones and friends, Russian shelling, the duration of the war and the possible options for its ending, the insufficiency of military aid from partner countries, the prospects of demobilizing relatives. Internally displaced persons expressed concerns about the inability to return home. Many participants were troubled by the uncertainty about the future and the unpredictability of their future plans due to the war. Other concerns included financial situation and employment, the state of their own physical and mental health and the health of their relatives.

Many emotions and concerns of the respondents were related to the duration of the full-scale war and reflections on the likelihood of its prolonged continuation. In their responses, participants pondered the extent to which they had accepted the possibility of a long-lasting war and reflected on how this has impacted their emotional state.

For many informants, the war had become a source of stress which depressed them and caused difficult emotional states. Unlike the early waves of the study, when talking about their emotional well-being, respondents spoke less frequently about intense negative emotions such as strong anger, pain, or shock; they also tried to avoid sources of such emotions, such as the news or communication with certain people. The word “fatigue” often appeared in their responses, described as “constant,” “from everything,” “from life,” and “from the prolonged war.” Respondents also used the word “heaviness” to describe their state of mind.

In previous waves of the study, respondents often spoke about difficulties with planning when discussing their thoughts about the future. A distinctive feature of the data from this wave was the increased association of the future with negative emotions. Participants felt strong confusion, a “state of stupor,” and frustration over their inability to influence events in their lives; they shared that they were losing a sense of meaning in their current activities due to the inability to plan and the uncertainty of external circumstances.

When discussing what helps them cope with emotional challenges, respondents most frequently mentioned their family, friends, and colleagues, as well as spending time together with them. Other sources of emotional support included caring for loved ones, rest, immersing themselves in work or study, daily routines, physical activities, hobbies, and receiving psychological help. It is worth noting that, unlike in the third wave of the study, which was conducted six months after the full-scale war began, the sixth wave saw a significant decrease in the number of respondents who said that emotional support came from their faith in the Armed Forces of Ukraine and hope for victory.

Most respondents noted some changes in their communication with others. These changes often related to the general nature of communication during the war rather than interactions with specific groups in society. For instance, participants shared that they had become less active in communicating with people outside their closest social circle. They also mentioned that, in their opinion, communication between people had become more tense. In most cases, respondents attributed this newly developed tension in communication with certain groups of people to differences in experiences of living through the war, the level of involvement in supporting the Defense Forces, and attitudes toward the war.

The change in communication was noticeable between those who remained in Ukraine after the full-scale invasion and those who were forced to move abroad. This was largely influenced by living in different contexts and physical distance. Those who were displaced abroad mentioned feeling excluded from the life of Ukrainian society and expressed a desire to be more involved. Meanwhile, those who stayed in Ukraine were not always receptive to advice from those who had been forced to move abroad and sometimes expressed a lack of understanding regarding their choice of the place of residence.

Some respondents found it difficult to communicate with people who were less engaged with the war than they were. Many pointed to the importance of shared values and political views. A group of participants whose loved ones serve in the Defense Forces emphasized that their interlocutors’ attitudes toward mobilization or the fact of their military service were important factors in communication.

In terms of changes in the sense of unity, the majority of respondents shared the view that the sense of unity in society had decreased during the second year of the full-scale invasion. Participants often attributed this to the polarization of society, growing accustomed to the war, and fatigue from the war. Some respondents living abroad also mentioned feeling more distanced from Ukrainian society.

On the other hand, some respondents expressed the belief that Ukrainian society still retains the ability to come together in critical situations, such as during missile attacks on civilian infrastructure. Additionally, some participants found a strong sense of unity within communities connected to volunteer and activist efforts to support the Defense Forces of Ukraine.

Almost all of the unwritten social norms that have changed in Ukrainian society, according to the respondents, were related to the impact of the war. The most commonly mentioned change was the reduction or complete abandonment of the use of the russian language and russian cultural products (music, cinema, literature), especially in public spaces. Some respondents noted the prevalence of conflicts, aggression, and mutual accusations in interactions. According to some informants, certain political topics have become taboo in Ukrainian society. At the same time, the topic of mental and emotional health, particularly mental issues, has become more normalized. Respondents also noted an increase in compassion and attentiveness toward others. “The new norm” was often described as refraining from demonstrating leisure activities and luxury on social media. Negative news, such as reports of the deaths of soldiers and civilians and the destruction of cities, had become more routine.

A significant portion of respondents shared that, in their view, helping the Armed Forces of Ukraine had become a norm in Ukrainian society, evident in the active involvement of people in volunteer activities and fundraising efforts for the Defense Forces. At the same time, respondents expressed varying opinions regarding the perception of men who avoid military service—ranging from disapproval to sympathy.

As in the previous wave of the study, when asked about their views on the future development of the war, respondents primarily spoke about the duration of the war and possible scenarios for its development. Most respondents, after the second year of the full-scale invasion, either realized or accepted the fact that the war would continue for a long time. Those who shared their expectations about the war’s further duration mentioned a range of two to ten years.

Among the scenarios for the war’s development mentioned by respondents, descriptions and fears of negative outcomes predominated. These included Ukraine’s defeat, a frozen war, an escalation in the intensity of fighting, a prolonged war of attrition, the loss of occupied territories, and negotiations with Russia. The positive scenario, according to respondents, was Ukraine’s victory. However, participants spoke about it cautiously, and some expressed doubts about what exactly could be considered a victory.

Regarding recovery and rebuilding, respondents expressed various opinions. Some participants believed that the primary focus should be on the war itself, with resources directed towards the needs of the military. There were also concerns that rebuilt structures might face the risk of being destroyed again due to Russian bombing or a potential Russian military advance. Some participants took a compromise position, suggesting that critical infrastructure and buildings located far from the front lines could be rebuilt even now. At the same time, for a portion of the informants, early planning for recovery and rebuilding was important. They considered the standards and principles that should guide the rebuilding process, mentioning such principles as inclusivity, safety, participatory approaches.

In respondents’ answers to the question about how their perception of their own role in the war had changed, three different scenarios were common: an increase in their role, a decrease, and no changes in it. Those who mentioned an increase in their role associated it with a heightened sense of their own responsibility or with finding an active community (such as a volunteer group). Regarding a decrease or disappearance of their role in the war, respondents cited distancing themselves from war-related issues and fatigue. When describing their role in the war, respondents most often spoke about volunteering and making financial donations for military needs. In the responses of some women, there was a shift in thinking about themselves in the role of military personnel, with some already starting to prepare to join the Defense Forces.

A significant portion of respondents continued to financially support the Defense Forces with the same frequency as before. It was common practice to regularly transfer money (a specific amount or a percentage of income) to charitable foundations and to support fundraising efforts. Some respondents noted that they viewed supporting the Defense Forces as part of their daily routine. Over the past year, some respondents increased the frequency of their donations to the military, partly due to an increase in their income. Conversely, another group of participants saw a decline in the regularity of their financial support for the Defense Forces—some attributed this to financial difficulties, lack of time to track fundraisers, and a decrease in trust toward volunteers and the state. A small number of respondents did not make donations, primarily due to a lack of financial capacity to do so.

The majority of respondents mentioned that they sent financial support to the Defense Forces through familiar volunteers and military personnel, many of whom were their relatives or long-time acquaintances. The reasons for directing funds this way included greater trust in people they knew personally and in those they had donated to previously.

Some respondents also engaged in volunteer activities over the past year. Physical assistance was quite common: weaving camouflage nets, making candles for the military, distributing and packing aid packages. Other widespread forms of volunteer activity included organizing fundraisers and charity events, providing logistical support, participating in event organization, collecting needed items, and other forms of assistance for the military, the wounded, and IDPs. Informational support was also relatively common, often involving help with communications and media work.

A significant portion of the study participants did not engage in volunteer activities over the past year. The reasons they cited included advanced age, living in a remote locality, and a lack of free time. Some respondents who had fewer opportunities to volunteer compensated for this by making financial donations.